Management Series: Leadership in the Changing Environment - Adaptive Leaders

 Contingency Theories and Adaptive Leadership

After studying this topic, you should be able to:

• Discuss how aspects of the situation can influence leader behavior and enhance or diminish the effects of leader behavior.
• Examine the key features of the early contingency theories of effective leadership
• Explain how to adapt leader behavior to the situation.
• Illustrate how to deal with demands, constraints, and role conflicts.

General Description of Contingency Theories

Contingency theories describe how aspects of the leadership situation can alter a leader’s influence and effectiveness.

The contingency theories of effective leadership have at least one predictor variable, at least one dependent variable, and one or more situational variables. The leadership attributes used as independent variables were usually described in terms of broad meta-categories (e.g., task and relations behavior). The dependent variable in most of the theories was subordinate satisfaction or performance, and in a few cases, it was group performance. Most of the situational variables were conditions the leader is not able to change in the short term, including:

• characteristics of the work (e.g., task structure, role interdependence),
• characteristics of subordinates (e.g., needs, values),
• characteristics of the leader (expertise, interpersonal stress), and
• characteristics of the leadership position (leader authority, formal policies).

Some contingency theories also include mediating variables (sometimes called “intervening variables”) to explain the influence of leader behavior and situational variables on performance outcomes. The mediators are usually subordinate characteristics that determine individual performance (e.g., role clarity, task skills, self-efficacy, task goals), but mediators can also include group-level characteristics that determine team performance (e.g., collective efficacy, cooperation, coordination of activities, resources).

 

Different Ways Situations Affect Leaders: Causal Effects of Situational Variables

1. Situation Directly Influences Leader Behavior.

A situational variable may directly influence a leader’s behavior but only indirectly influence the dependent variables. Aspects of the situation such as formal rules, policies, role expectations, and organizational values can encourage or constrain a leader’s behavior, and they are sometimes called demands and constraints. In addition to the direct effect of the situation on leader behavior, there may be an indirect effect on dependent variables. For example, a company establishes a new policy requiring sales managers
to provide bonuses to any sales representative with sales exceeding a minimum standard; sales
managers begin awarding bonuses and the performance and satisfaction of the sales representatives increases. 

2. Situation Moderates Effects of Leader Behavior.

A situational variable is called an enhancer if it increases the effects of leader behavior on the dependent variable but does not directly influence the dependent variable. For example, providing coaching will have a stronger impact on subordinate performance when the leader has relevant expertise. This expertise enables the leader to provide better coaching, and subordinates are more likely to follow advice from a leader who is perceived to be an expert. An enhancer can indirectly influence leader behavior if a leader is more likely to use a behavior because it is perceived to be relevant and effective.

Situational moderator variables called a neutralizer when it decreases the effect of leader behaviour on the dependent variable or prevents any effect from occurring. For example, offering a pay increase to an employee for working extra days may fail if the employee is rich and does not need the money. Employee indifference to paying rewards is a neutralizer for this type of influence tactic.

3. Situation Directly Affects Outcomes or Mediators.

A situational variable can directly influence an outcome such as subordinate satisfaction or performance, or a mediating variable that is a determinant of the outcomes. When a situational variable can make a mediating variable or an outcome more favorable, it is sometimes called a “substitute” for leadership. An example is when subordinates have extensive prior training and experience. The need for clarifying and coaching by the leader is reduced because subordinates already know what to do and how to do it. A substitute can indirectly influence leader behavior if it becomes obvious to the leader that some types
of behavior are redundant and unnecessary.

A situational variable can also affect the relative importance of a mediating variable as a determinant of performance outcomes. For example, employee skill is a more important determinant of performance when the task is very complex and variable than when the task is simple and repetitive. Here again, the situational variable can indirectly influence leader behavior if it is obvious to the leader that some types of behavior are more relevant than others to improve performance for the leader’s team or work unit.

Contingency Theories

1. Path-Goal Theory by Robert House

Consistent with the expectancy theory of motivation, leaders can motivate subordinates by influencing their perceptions about the likely consequences of different levels of effort. Subordinates will perform better when they have clear and accurate role expectations, they perceive that a high level of effort is necessary to attain task objectives, they are optimistic that it is possible to achieve the task objectives, and they perceive that high performance will result in beneficial outcomes. The effect of a leader’s behavior is primarily to modify these perceptions and beliefs.

“The motivational function of the leader consists of increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment and making the path to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction en route.”

According to path-goal theory, the effect of leader behavior on subordinate satisfaction and effort depends on aspects of the situation, including task characteristics and subordinate characteristics. These situational moderator variables determine both the potential for increased subordinate motivation and the manner in which the leader must act to improve motivation. Situational variables also influence subordinate preferences for a particular pattern of leadership behavior, thereby influencing the impact of the leader on subordinate satisfaction.

2. Situational Leadership Theory

Hersey and Blanchard (1977) proposed a contingency theory called Situational Leadership Theory. According to proponents of the situational approach to leadership, universally important traits and behaviors don’t exist. It specifies the appropriate type of leadership behavior for a subordinate in various situations. Behavior was defined in terms of the directive and supportive leadership, and a revised version of the theory also included decision procedures (Graef, 1997). The situational variable is subordinate maturity, which includes the person’s ability and confidence to do a task.

According to the theory, for a low-maturity subordinate the leader should use substantial task-oriented behavior such as defining roles, clarifying standards and procedures, directing the work, and monitoring progress. As subordinate maturity increases up to a moderate level, the leader can decrease the amount of task-oriented behavior and increase the amount of relations-oriented behavior (e.g., consult with the subordinate, provide more praise and attention). For high-maturity subordinates, the leader should use extensive delegation and only a limited amount of directive and supportive behavior. A high-maturity subordinate has the ability to do the work
without much direction or monitoring by the leader, and the confidence to work without much supportive behavior by the leader.

The primary focus of the theory is on short-term behavior, but over time the leader may be able to increase subordinate maturity with a developmental intervention that builds the person’s skills and confidence. How long it takes to increase subordinate maturity depends on the complexity of the task and the subordinate’s initial skill and confidence. It may take as little as a few days or as long as a few years to advance a subordinate from low to high maturity on a given task. Hersey and Blanchard recognized that subordinate maturity may also regress, requiring a flexible adjustment of the leader’s behavior. For example, after a personal tragedy such as the death of loved ones, a subordinate who was highly motivated may become apathetic. In this situation, the leader should increase supervision and use a developmental intervention designed to restore maturity to the former high level.

The situational variables include characteristics of the subordinates, task, and the organization that serve as substitutes by directly affecting the dependent variable and making the leader behavior redundant. The substitutes for instrumental leadership include a highly structured and repetitive task, extensive rules and standard procedures, and extensive prior training and experience for subordinates.

The substitutes for supportive leadership include a cohesive workgroup in which the members support each other and an intrinsically satisfying task that is not stressful. In a situation with many substitutes, the potential impact of leader behavior on subordinate motivation and satisfaction may be greatly reduced. For example, little direction is necessary when subordinates have extensive prior experience or training, and they already possess the skills and knowledge to know what to do and how to do it. Likewise, professionals who are internally motivated by their values, needs, and ethics do not need to be encouraged by the leader to do high-quality work.

 

3. Fiedler’s Contingency Model

According to Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership effectiveness, effectiveness depends on two factors: the personal style of the leader and the degree to which the situation gives the leader power, control, and influence over the situation. The figure below illustrates the contingency model:

The upper half of the figure shows the situational analysis, and the lower half indicates the appropriate style. In the upper portion, three questions are used to analyze the situation:

1. Are leader-member relations good or poor? (To what extent is the leader accepted and supported by group members?)
2. Is the task structured or unstructured? (To what extent do group members know what their goals are and how to accomplish them?)
3. Is the leader’s position power strong or weak (high or low)? (To what extent does the leader have the authority to reward and punish?)

These three sequential questions create a decision tree (from top to bottom in the figure) in which a situation is classified into one of eight categories. The lower the category number, the more favorable the situation is for the leader; the higher the number, the less favorable the situation. Fiedler originally called this variable “situational favorableness,” and later “situational control.” Situation 1 is the best: relations are good, task structure is high, and power is high. In the least favorable situation (8), in which the leader has very little situational control, relations are poor, tasks lack structure, and the leader’s power is weak.

Different situations dictate different leadership styles. Fiedler measured leadership styles with an instrument assessing the leader’s least preferred co-worker (LPC); that is, the attitude toward the follower the leader liked the least. This was considered an indication more generally of leaders’ attitudes toward people. If a leader can single out the person she likes the least, but her attitude is not all that negative, she would receive a high score on the LPC scale. Leaders with more negative attitudes toward others would receive low LPC scores.

Based on the LPC score, Fiedler considered two leadership styles. Task-motivated leadership places primary emphasis on completing the task and is more likely exhibited by leaders with low LPC scores. Relationship-motivated leadership emphasizes maintaining good interpersonal relationships and is more likely from high-LPC leaders. These leadership styles correspond to task performance and group maintenance leader behaviors, respectively.

DISCUSSION As organizations become flatter (that is, fewer hierarchical levels) and more globally and technologically interconnected, old leadership theories will become outdated. Although the three elements of leadership—the leader, the followers, and the situation—will still be part of the whole leadership equation, how these three elements interact to successfully accomplish a team’s mission and goals are changing. Successful leaders in tomorrow’s workplaces will need to be more like chameleons, adapting to complex and dynamic environments.  Discussion Question 1: Why are old leadership theories becoming outdated? Discussion Question 2: “Without people, leaders are nothing”. What does this mean? > POST YOUR ANSWER HERE <

 

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Multiple-linkage Model

The multiple-linkage model (Yukl, 1981, 1989) was developed after the other early contingency theories, and it includes ideas from some of those theories. However, the broadly defined leadership behaviors in most earlier theories were replaced by more specific types of behaviors. Other unique features include a larger number of mediating and situational variables, and a more explicit description of group-level processes. The explanation of how these variables are relevant includes ideas from the literature on motivation, organization theory, and team leadership. The multiple-linkage model describes how managerial behavior and situational variables jointly influence the performance of individual subordinates and the leader’s work unit. The four types of variables in the model include managerial behaviors, mediating variables, criterion variables, and situational variables.

Mediating Variables

The mediating variables are defined primarily at the group level, like theories of team leadership:

1. Task commitment: members strive to attain a high level of performance and show a high degree of personal commitment to unit task objectives.
2. Ability and role clarity: members understand their individual job responsibilities, know what to do, and have the skills to do it.
3. Organization of the work: effective performance strategies are used and the work is organized to ensure efficient utilization of personnel, equipment, and facilities.
4. Cooperation and mutual trust: members trust each other, share information and ideas, help each other, and identify with the work unit.
5. Resources and support: the group has budgetary funds, tools, equipment, supplies, personnel, facilities, information, and assistance needed to do the work.
6. External coordination: the activities of the group are synchronized with the interdependent activities in other subunits and organizations (e.g., suppliers, clients).

Situational Variables

Situational variables directly influence mediating variables and can make them either more or less favorable. Situational variables also determine the relative importance of the mediating variables as a determinant of group performance. Mediating variables that are both important and deficient should get top priority for corrective action by a leader. Conditions that make a mediating variable more favorable are similar to “substitutes” for leadership. In a very favorable situation, some of the mediating variables may already be at their maximum short-term level, making the job of the leader much easier. Situational variables affecting each mediating variable are briefly described in this section.

Situational variables that can influence task commitment include the formal reward system and the intrinsically motivating properties of the work itself. Subordinate task commitment is more important for complex tasks that require high effort and initiative and have a high cost for any errors. Member commitment to perform the task effectively will be greater if the organization has a reward system that provides attractive rewards contingent on performance, as in the case of many sales jobs. Intrinsic motivation is likely to be higher for subordinates if the work requires varied skills, is interesting and challenging, and provides automatic feedback about performance.

 

Short-Term Actions to Correct Deficiencies

A basic proposition of the theory is that leader actions to correct any deficiencies in the mediating variables will improve group performance. A leader who fails to recognize opportunities to correct deficiencies in key mediating variables, who recognizes the opportunities but fails to act, or who acts but is not skilled will be less than optimally effective. An ineffective leader may make things worse by acting in ways that increase rather than decrease the deficiency in one or more mediating variables. For example, a leader who is very manipulative and coercive may reduce subordinate effort rather than increasing it.

Types of Specific Actions for Improving Weak Performance Determinants Low subordinate task commitment or confidence Set challenging goals and express confidence they can be achieved. Articulate an appealing vision of what the group can accomplish. Use influence tactics to influence task commitment. Offer more incentives for goal attainment. Low subordinate task knowledge and skills Make clear assignments. Provide more direction and clarification of procedures. Provide instruction and coaching when needed. Find skilled people to do difficult tasks. Low coordination and inefficient procedures for the work Find ways to make better use of members, resources, and equipment. Identify and eliminate inefficient or unnecessary activities. Provide clear, decisive direction of activities. Develop better plans for achieving task objectives. Inadequate resources to do the work Find more reliable or alternative sources of resources. Request more resources from the organization. Identify ways to avoid wasted sources. Find more efficient ways to use resources. Weak external coordination Develop better plans to avoid external coordination problems. Improve external relations with interdependent units. Consult more often with interdependent units to coordinate actions. Monitor closely to detect external coordination problems quickly.

 

Long-Term Effects on Group Performance

Over a longer period of time, leaders can make larger improvements in group performance by modifying the situation to make it more favorable. Effective leaders act to reduce constraints, increase substitutes, and reduce the importance of mediating variables that are not amenable to improvement. These effects usually involve sequences of related behaviors carried out over a long time period. More research has been conducted on short-term behaviors by leaders than on the long-term behaviors to improve the situation. Useful insights are provided by literature on leading change, making strategic decisions, and representing the team or work unit.

1. Gain more access to resources needed for the work by cultivating better relationships with suppliers, finding alternative sources, and reducing dependence on unreliable sources.
2. Gain more control over the demand for the unit’s products and services by finding new customers, opening new markets, advertising more, and modifying the products or services to be more acceptable to clients and customers.
3. Initiate new, more profitable activities for the work unit that will make better use of personnel, equipment, and facilities.
4. Initiate long-term improvement programs to upgrade equipment, and facilities in the work unit (e.g., replace old equipment, implement new technology).
5. Improve selection procedures to increase the level of employee skills and commitment.
6. Modify the formal structure of the work unit to solve chronic problems and reduce demands on the leader for short-term problem-solving.

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Guidelines for Adaptive Leadership

In order to be effective, leaders need to adapt their behavior to changing situations. The following guidelines can help leaders be more flexible and adaptive to their situation. The guidelines are based on findings in research on contingency theories and other research using descriptive methods.

• Understand your leadership situation and try to make it more favorable.
• Learn how to use a wide range of relevant behaviors.
• Identify effective behaviors for your objectives and situation.
• Use more planning for a long, complex task.
• Provide more direction to people with interdependent roles.
• Monitor a critical task or unreliable person more closely.
• Provide more instruction and coaching to an inexperienced subordinate.
• Be more supportive of someone with a highly stressful task.

 

Guidelines for Managing Immediate Crises

One type of leadership situation that is especially challenging is an immediate crisis or disruption that endangers the safety of people or the success of an activity. Examples of this type of crisis include pandemic, serious accidents, explosions, natural disasters, equipment breakdowns, product defects, sabotage of products or facilities, supply shortages, health emergencies, employee strikes, sabotage, a terrorist attack, or a financial crisis.

• Anticipate problems and prepare for them.
• Learn to recognize early warning signs for an impending problem.
• Quickly identify the nature and scope of the problem.
• Direct the response by the unit or team in a confident and decisive way.
• Keep people informed about a major problem and what is being done to resolve it.
• Use a crisis as an opportunity to make necessary changes.

Management Series: Leading in a Cross-Culture and Diversity Environment

 Cross-Culture & Diversity

After studying this topic, you should be able to:

• Discuss why cross-cultural research on leadership is important.
• Assess how cultural values are related to leader behavior.
• Identify and apply the essentials for effective global leadership.
• Manage diversity and provide equal opportunities.

• Globalization and changing demographic patterns are making it more important for leaders to understand how to influence and manage people with different values, beliefs, and expectations. The diversity of people in leadership positions is also increasing, and there is strong interest in studying whether the ability to provide effective leadership is related to a person’s gender, age, race, ethnic background, national origin, religion, sexual preference, or physical appearance (height, weight, attractiveness).
• Cultural values and traditions can influence the attitudes and behavior of managers in a number of different ways. The values are likely to be internalized by managers who grow up in a particular culture, and these values will influence their attitudes and behavior in ways that may not be conscious. In addition, cultural values are reflected in social norms about the way people relate to each other. Cultural norms specify acceptable forms of leadership behavior and may be formalized as social laws limiting the use of power. Most managers will conform to social norms about acceptable behavior, even if they have not internalized the norms. One reason is that deviation from social norms may result in diminished respect and increased social pressure from other members of the organization. Another reason for conformity with social norms is that the use of socially unacceptable forms of behavior is likely to undermine a leader’s effectiveness.
• Even when some types of leadership behaviors are not clearly supported by the prevailing cultural values and traditions in a country, it does not necessarily mean that these behaviors are ineffective. Managers who have little experience with a particular type of leadership behavior may not understand how effective it could be.
• The values and traditions in a national culture can change over time, just as they do in organizational culture. Cultural values are influenced by many types of changes (e.g., economic, political, social, technological). Countries in which socialism is being replaced by capitalism and emphasis on entrepreneurship are likely to see a shift toward stronger individualism and performance orientation values. Countries in which an autocratic political system is replaced by a democratic system are likely to become more accepting of participative leadership and empowerment in organizations. Countries in which strong gender differentiation is gradually replaced by gender equality can be expected to become more accepting of leadership practices that reflect traditional feminine attributes (e.g., nurturing, developing, building cooperative relationships). Cultural values and beliefs about the determinants of effective leadership are likely to change in a consistent way.

 

Cultural Value Dimensions and Leadership

This section summarizes major findings in the research on how current cultural values are related to leadership beliefs, leadership behavior, and leadership development practices. The six value dimensions to be discussed include (1) power distance, (2) uncertainty avoidance, (3) individualism versus collectivism, (4) gender egalitarianism, (5) performance orientation, and (6) humane orientation.

Image source: https://hespinterpretation.com/2019/11/01/hofstedes-cultural-dimensions-and-assessment-of-cultural-and-linguistically-diverse-clients/

1.Power Distance

Power distance involves the acceptance of an unequal distribution of power and status in organizations and institutions. In high power distance cultures, people expect the leaders to have greater authority and are more likely to comply with rules and directives without questioning or challenging them (Dickson et al., 2003). Subordinates are less willing to challenge bosses or express disagreement with them (Adsit, London, Crom, & Jones, 1997). More formal policies and rules are used, and managers consult less often with subordinates when making decisions.

Participative leadership is viewed as a more favorable leadership attribute in low power distance cultures such as Western Europe, New Zealand, and the United States than in high power distance countries such as Russia, China, Taiwan, Mexico, and Venezuela (Dorfman, Hanges, & Brodbeck, 2004).

2.Uncertainty Avoidance

In cultures with high avoidance of uncertainty, there is more fear of the unknown, and people desire more security, stability, and order. Social norms, tradition, detailed agreements, and certified expertise are more valued because they offer a way to avoid uncertainty and disorder. Examples of countries with high uncertainty avoidance include France, Spain, Germany, Switzerland, Russia, and India. Some countries with
a lower concern about avoiding uncertainty include the United States, United Kingdom, Canada,
Denmark, and Sweden.

When there is high uncertainty avoidance, valued qualities for managers include being reliable, orderly, and cautious, rather than flexible, innovative, and risk-taking. Managers use more detailed planning, formal rules and standard procedures, and monitoring of activities, and there is less delegation

3.Individualism (versus Collectivism)

Individualism is the extent to which the needs and autonomy of individuals are more important than the collective needs of groups, organizations, or society. In an individualistic culture, individual rights are more important than social responsibilities, and people are expected to take care of themselves (Dickson et al., 2003; Gelfand, Bhawuk, Nishi, & Bechtold, 2004; Hofstede, 1980). Examples of countries with strong values for individualism include the United States, Australia, England, and the Netherlands. 

Because people are more motivated to satisfy their self‐interests and personal goals in an individualistic culture, it is more difficult for leaders to inspire strong commitment to a team or organizational objectives (Jung & Avolio, 1999; Triandis et al., 1993). The preference for rewards based on individual achievements and performance also makes it more difficult for leaders to use team‐based rewards and recognition.

4.Gender Egalitarianism (Masculinity)

Gender egalitarianism is the extent to which men and women receive equal treatment, and both masculine and feminine attributes are considered important and desirable. In cultures with high gender egalitarianism, there is less differentiation of sex roles and most jobs are not segregated by gender. Women have a more equal opportunity to be selected for important leadership positions, although access is still greater for public sector positions than in business corporations. In the absence of strongly differentiated gender‐role expectations, men and women leaders are less limited in their behavior, and there is less bias in how their behavior is evaluated by subordinates and by bosses. Examples of countries with strong gender egalitarian values include Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Countries with a low level of gender egalitarianism include Japan, Italy, Mexico, and Switzerland. 

Participative leadership, supportive leadership, and relations‐oriented aspects of transformational leadership are viewed less favorably in cultures with low gender egalitarianism. Leaders are more likely to use direct, confrontational forms of interpersonal influence rather than indirect, subtle forms of influence. Leaders whose actions display humility, compassion, or conciliation are more likely to be viewed as weak and ineffective in a “masculine” culture.

5.Performance Orientation (Long-Term)

In a high-performance orientation culture, there is more emphasis on leader behaviors that are relevant for improving performance and efficiency. Examples include setting challenging goals or standards, developing action plans with schedules and deadlines, expressing confidence that subordinates can improve performance, developing job‐relevant skills in subordinates, encouraging initiative, and providing praise and rewards for achievements. In a high-performance orientation culture, the selection of members for a team with an important task is likely to be based on talent, not on friendship or family relations.

A strong concern for task performance is widely believed to be a requirement for effective leadership in any country. Economic development is aided by a strong performance orientation, but concern for improving performance may be stronger in rapidly developing countries than in a country where widespread prosperity already exists.

6.Humane Orientation (Indulgence)

Humane orientation means a strong concern for the welfare of other people and the willingness to sacrifice one’s own self‐interest to help others. Key values include altruism, benevolence, kindness, compassion, love, and generosity. These values tend to be associated with stronger needs for affiliation and belongingness than for pleasure, achievement, or power. Altruism and kindness are not limited to a person’s family or ethnic/religious in‐group, but instead, include a humanitarian concern for everyone. Societies with a strong humane orientation encourage and reward individuals for being friendly, caring, generous, and kind to others. Such societies are likely to invest more resources in educating and training people for careers and in providing health care and social services to people. The humane values for an individual are influenced by family experiences, parenting, and religious teaching as well as by cultural norms. 

A leader with strong humane orientation values is likely to be more tolerant, patient, and helpful with subordinates who make mistakes or are having difficulty learning a new task. Humane orientation values are also associated with participative leadership, servant leadership, and team‐building behaviors (encouraging cooperation and mutual trust). The key values are consistent with a diplomatic, conciliatory style of conflict management that seeks to restore harmonious relations and satisfy each party’s important needs.

Additional Reference: https://geerthofstede.com/culture-geert-hofstede-gert-jan-hofstede/6d-model-of-national-culture/

 

REFLECTION Compare the cultural dimensions of any TWO (2) countries you intend to work in. Based on the comparison, which one do you prefer & the best for your managerial-style? Justify. Cultural dimensions comparison: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/  > CLICK HERE TO REFLECT <

 

Culture Clusters

The cultural value dimensions are moderately inter-correlated, and examining differences for a single value dimension without controlling for the others makes it difficult to determine their independent effects on leadership beliefs and behavior. For example, in a country that has high power distance and low uncertainty tolerance, it is not clear how much each value influences the emphasis on centralized decisions for a company. For this reason, researchers have grouped countries into clusters based on regional proximity and similarity in language, ethnic background, and religion (Dorfman et al., 2004; Gupta, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002).

The GLOBE researchers grouped 60 countries into 10 clusters, and a discriminant analysis confirmed that the classification of countries into clusters accurately reflected differences in the nine cultural values for each country. The nations in each cluster are shown below:

 

SELF-CHECK What’s Your Cultural Profile? Use the self-assessment link below to identify your culture profile. Then, comment on your results. Self-Assessment Test by Erin Meyer: https://hbr.org/web/assessment/2014/08/whats-your-cultural-profile ttps://hbr.org/web/assessment/2014/08/whats-your-cultural-profile

 

Gender and Leadership

Widespread discrimination is clearly evident in the low number of women who hold important, high‐level leadership positions in most types of organizations. The strong tendency to favor men over women in filling high‐level leadership positions has been referred to as the “glass ceiling.” Only a small number of nations have a female head of state (e.g., prime minister, president), and the number of women in top executive positions in large business organizations are also very small, although it has been increasing in recent years. In the complete absence of sex‐based discrimination, the number of women in chief executive positions in business and government should be close to 50 percent.

 

Theories of Male Advantage vs Theory of Feminine Advantage

Gender-based discrimination was supported by age-old beliefs that men are more qualified than women for leadership roles. These beliefs involved assumptions about the traits and skills required for effective leadership in organizations (implicit theories), assumptions about inherent differences between men and women (gender stereotypes), and assumptions about appropriate behavior for men and women (role expectations). As noted earlier, the implicit theories and gender stereotypes are also influenced by cultural values for gender egalitarianism. 

A more recent controversy is fueled by claims that women are more likely than men to possess the values and skills necessary for effective leadership in modern organizations. The difference is a result of childhood experiences, parent-child interactions, and socialization practices that reflect cultural sex‐role stereotypes and beliefs about gender differences and appropriate occupations for men and women.

These experiences encourage “feminine” values such as kindness, compassion, nurturing, and sharing. Proponents of the “feminine advantage” theory contend that women are more concerned with consensus building, inclusiveness, and interpersonal relations; they are more willing to develop and nurture subordinates and share power with them. Women are believed to have more empathy, rely more on intuition, and be more sensitive to feelings and the quality of relationships.

More systematic and comprehensive research is needed to determine the extent of any gender differences in leadership and the reasons for them. It is essential to examine how organizational and cultural factors influence the perceptions and behaviors that shape gender identity.

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Managing Diversity

Diversity can take many forms, including differences in race, ethnic identity, age, gender, education, physical appearance, socioeconomic level, and sexual orientation. More women are entering traditionally male jobs, the number of older workers is increasing, and there is more diversity with regard to ethnic, religious, and racial backgrounds. The increasing number of joint ventures, mergers, and strategic alliances is bringing together people from different types of organizations and national cultures.

 

READING: The Key to Inclusive Leadership Bourke, J. and Espedido, A. (2020). The key to Inclusive Leadership. Harvard Business Review (Accessed on August 24, 2020: URL: https://hbr.org/2020/03/the-key-to-inclusive-leadership) (Download Pdf) (0 views/downloads) > POST YOUR REFLECTION HERE <

 

A greater variety of perspectives increases creativity, and full utilization of a diverse workforce will increase the amount of available talent for filling important jobs. However, diversity can also result in more distrust and conflict, lower satisfaction, and higher turnover. An organization is less likely to have shared values and strong member commitment when it has many diverse members who identify primarily with their own subgroup. Thus, managing diversity is an important but difficult responsibility of leaders in the twenty‐first century.

SELF-CHECK & REFLECTION 1. Do you consider yourself an Inclusive Leader? Use the link below to find out: https://www.catalyst.org/research/quiz-are-you-an-inclusive-leader/    2. Do you agree with the results? Reflect and give an example of how you can become an Inclusive Leader. > CLICK HERE TO REFLECT <s://www.catalyst.org/research/quiz-are-you-an-inclusive-leader/

 

Guidelines for Managing Diversity and Promoting Inclusion

Encourage Tolerance & Appreciation Set an example in your own behavior of appreciation for diversity. Encourage respect for individual differences. Promote understanding of different values, beliefs, and traditions. Explain the benefits of diversity for the team or organization. Encourage and support others who promote tolerance of diversity.

Discourage Intolerance & Discrimination Discourage the use of stereotypes to describe people. Identify biased beliefs and role expectations for women or minorities. Challenge people who make prejudiced comments. Speak out to protest against unfair treatment based on prejudice. Take disciplinary action to stop harassment of women or minorities.

 

To make full use of the talent represented by the diverse members of the organization, it is essential to eliminate constraints that prevent qualified people from selection for important positions. Many things can be done to facilitate equal opportunity and reduce discrimination in personnel decisions.

An important responsibility for leaders in this new century is the management of diversity, which can take many forms. Leaders play an essential role in helping to bring about equal opportunity and elimination of unfair discrimination in selection and promotion decisions. Leaders can do many things to encourage tolerance and appreciation of diversity in organizations. All leaders in the organization should share the responsibility for improving diversity and ensuring equal opportunity. Leadership at the national level is also important in the continuing efforts to eliminate unfair discrimination for all minorities and ethnic groups.